Article Information

Author:
Nils J. Bergman1

Affiliation:
1Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, South Africa

Correspondence to:
Nils Bergman

Postal address:
8 Francis Road, Pinelands 7405, South Africa

Dates:
Received: 25 July 2014
Accepted: 12 Sept. 2014
Published: 28 Nov. 2014

How to cite this article:
Bergman, N.J., 2014, ‘The neuroscience of birth – and the case for Zero Separation’, Curationis 37(2), Art. #1440, 4 page. http://dx.doi.org/10.4102/
curationis.v37i2.1440

Copyright Notice:
© 2014. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS OpenJournals.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
The neuroscience of birth – and the case for Zero Separation
In This Original Research...
Open Access
• Abstract
• Introduction
   • Problem statement
   • Aims
   • Trends
• The case for Zero Separation
   • The impact of Zero Separation on the mother
• Conclusion
• Acknowledgements
   • Competing interests
• References
Abstract

Currently, Western maternal and neonatal care are to a large extent based on routine separation of mother and infant. It is argued that there is no scientific rationale for this practice and a body of new knowledge now exists that makes a case for Zero Separation of mother and newborn. For the infant, the promotion of Zero Separation is based on the need for maternal sensory inputs that regulate the physiology of the newborn. There are harmful effects of dysregulation and subsequent epigenetic changes caused by separation. Skin-to-skin contact is the antithesis to such separation; the mother’s body is the biologically ‘normal’ place of care, supporting better outcomes both for normal healthy babies and for the smallest preterm infants. In the mother, there are needed neural processes that ensure enhanced reproductive fitness, including behavioural changes (e.g. bonding and protection) and improved lactation, which are supported by the practice of Zero Separation. Zero Separation of mother and newborn should thus be maintained at all costs within health services.

Introduction

Problem statement
Until recently, the standard belief about the newborn brain was that it was extremely immature at birth. It was believed that maturation was primarily a genetically guided process and therefore relatively impervious to influence by early care at birth and inevitable adverse experiences. It was believed that mothers had negligible influence on their newborns’ brains or bodies and that the important thing was to ensure newborn survival. There was a legacy of high maternal mortality, so childbirth was regarded as extremely dangerous and required management by specialists that ensured survival. In the process, success became measured largely by survival itself, not by quality of survival or any other behavioural or social outcomes. Over the last 100 years, this world view has shaped the way in which health services are designed and operated. New ideas that might possibly undermine the good results that modern care has achieved are often met with resistance.

Aims
The above beliefs and ideas about childbirth are not supported by 21st century neuroscience or by evidence-based medicine. This brief scientific report provides a critical examination of the current gap between latest evidence and current practice in newborn care.

Trends
Early childhood development and policy makers refer to the ’first 1000 days’ as the first two years of life, as well as the 270 days preceding birth (Panter-Brick & Leckman 2013). The human newborn is born with a relatively small brain, but science has shown that it is perfectly wired and competent for early extra-uterine life (Schore 2001a; Winberg 2005). A human will never be as alert as after a vaginal birth: noradrenalin wakes up the brain and is 10 times higher at birth than ever again (Lagercrantz & Bistoletti 1977). High levels of noradrenalin activate the lungs and, more importantly, ensure early bonding with the mother (Ross & Young 2009). The mother’s smell (Porter 1998), contact and warmth ‘fire’ a pathway from the baby’s amygdala to its frontal lobe (Bartocci et al. 2000), which connects the newborn’s emotional and social brain circuits (Nelson & Panksepp 1998). Whilst genes have made this possible (Lagercrantz 1996), the experience of a mother’s constant and uninterrupted physical presence make it happen (Hofer 1994). It used to be asked whether ‘nature or nurture drove development; more recently it was believed that it was nature and nurture AND niche’ – with niche being the environment – that did so. The current view is to regard both nurture and niche as environment; nature’s gene effects are multiplied in their interaction with this environment (commonly written GxE) (Caspi et al. 2010).

The case for Zero Separation

Is the safest place for a newborn the observation nursery, separated from its mother? The Cochrane review on early skin-to-skin contact (SSC) for healthy newborns and their mothers (Moore et al. 2012) finds strong evidence that SSC produces improved physiological regulation and increases breastfeeding rates. Another Cochrane Review on the Kangaroo Mother Care (KMC) strategy which includes SSC, breastfeeding and early discharge (World Health Organization [WHO] 2003), concludes that KMC lowers mortality (Conde-Agudelo, Belizán & Diaz-Rossello 2011). Premature babies are, in many hospitals, believed to be unstable, thus holding and touch is discouraged. Findings from a randomised controlled trial published 10 years ago indicate, however, that low-birth-weight newborns stabilised because they were not separated from their mothers. In contrast, preterm babies became increasingly unstable during their first six hours of life in optimal incubator care (Bergman, Linley & Fawcus 2004). Why then do private and public hospital staff still believe that the mother’s body is a dangerous place for newborns, when research demonstrates that premature babies become unstable because their mothers are not holding them, that is to say, because of maternal-infant separation (Bergman et al. 2004)?

A common view of a newborn is that it lies in its bed, where it either cries or sleeps; and swaddling is helpful for stopping its crying. Crying is said to be good, helping to fill the lungs with air. Modern neuroscience, however, does not support this view. The science behind reproductive biology is that all of a mother’s body sensations help control all of the different parts of the physiology of the baby (Hofer 2005); this is called regulation. Prolonged maternal regulation results in healthy physiological set-points (Hofer 2005), mediated by epigenetic settings that wire midbrain neural circuits (Meaney & Szyf 2005). Babies cry because of the absence of the maternal sensory regulators: they are experiencing dysregulation (Christensson et al. 1995; Hofer 2005). This shuts off the baby’s growth hormone and switches on cortisol (Hofer 2005). Cortisol diverts all the calories and other neurological resources to ensuring survival, so that homeostasis is re-established, but at the cost of growth. Such infants do have ‘stable vital signs’, but the energy consumed to achieve this homeostasis is not measured (McEwen & Seeman 1999). When the mother provides regulation through her own body, all of the baby’s energy is available for development.

In a study of two-day-old healthy babies sleeping alternatively in cots and in SSC (their own controls), cot sleeping showed three times higher autonomic nervous system (ANS) activation compared with SSC (Morgan, Horn & Bergman 2011). It is now known that more calories are required with higher ANS activity; this is accompanied by high cortisol levels. When cortisol is doing the regulating, less efficient homeostatic set-points are being programmed in the physiology of the baby. These set-points remain for life (Hochberg et al. 2011). The most well established effect of this re-programming is obesity (Stettler et al. 2005), but hypertension, high cholesterol and diabetes may become likely health outcomes because of such changes (Coe & Lubach 2008). Furthermore, the infant connection of amygdala to frontal lobe is weakened (Schore 2001b) and the capacity for trust is compromised when the infant’s basic needs are not met (Ross & Young 2009).

The swaddled and separated baby lies still with its eyes closed, and is believed to be sleeping. A study on autonomic activation (Morgan et al. 2011), showed that quiet sleep was reduced by 86% in separated babies and their sleep cycling was almost abolished. There were also specific autonomic patterns in separated babies, which match perfectly those described as ‘threat responses’ found in abused children (Perry et al. 1995). The first sign of perceived threat results in vigilance, where crying has survival value since the perceived threat is further away than the mother. When the perceived threat is closer than the mother, or if the mother is not responding, a cry response would, however, increase danger, thus a state of freeze follows (Misslin 2003). This ‘freeze state’ is produced by intense and total autonomic activation, with profound avoidance activation on electroencephalogram (Jones, McFall & Diego 2004). Such babies lie absolutely still, absolutely quiet, with eyes firmly closed. This is believed to be sleep! It is however a state of high arousal, also called ‘fear-terror’ (Perry et al. 1995). When this state is prolonged, cortisol may initiate harmful changes that can affect the individual across its lifespan.

Whilst survival rates are important, it is the quality of survival that actually matters. This is specifically true for preterm infants that spend weeks in separation. It has been shown that there is a poor quality of survival with respect to their immunity (Baron et al. 2011; Bird et al. 2010), IQ and scholastic achievement (Jain 2008; Morse et al. 2009). SSC with Zero Separation is the biological normal (default) and is the one intervention above any other that can improve quality of survival.

The impact of Zero Separation on the mother
Nursing practices also ensure the mother’s safety, but many procedures and restrictions have no evidence base. Over recent years, procedures have been tested methodically in randomised controlled trials and have been shown to be unhelpful or even harmful. Examples of such procedures include shaving, episiotomy, giving birth in lithotomy, continuous cardiotocograph use and starving during labour (WHO 2014). Whilst there have been changes, health professionals still maintain control of the whole birth experience; the mother is not allowed this basic right (WHO 2014).

A new mother is often still coerced or encouraged into thinking that she needs ‘to rest and be alone’ after birth, that this is good for her and that it is safest and best for her baby to be in the hospital nursery. Reproductive biology affirms that there are critical periods that operate in the newborn (Lee 2003), but equally so in the mother. The stimulations the newborn provides to the mother, including eye contact, nipple stimulations and sounds, all work together to trigger new neural circuits in the mother. One of these is an oxytocin effect in the anterior cingulate gyrus (Uvnäs-Moberg 2003), which produces ‘ferocity of defence of young’ (Hahn-Holbrook et al. 2011; Leng, Meddle & Douglas 2008). The window for this effect is only a few hours (Uvnäs- Moberg 2003). Early suckling produces prolactin which ensures that mammogenesis is optimal (Uvnäs-Moberg et al. 1990); the window for this is two days. Thus, successful breastfeeding requires Zero Separation. Many other effects are taking place, but suffice it to say, it is a huge disservice to mothers when their newborns are removed.

Whilst mothers themselves need observation and care in order to prevent complications during and after childbirth, this author believes that current care must accommodate the new understanding of reproductive biology and developmental neuroscience. Maternal and fetal outcomes are profoundly improved when doula care is provided (American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists 2014) along with ‘natural birth’ (Mercer et al. 2007; Smith, Plaat & Fisk 2008), as well as when the ecologically-valid environment that produces the ‘GxE’ described earlier is ensured. Although the technology and skills available for newborn and preterm care are wonderful, they do not require separation; they should instead be applied to the right place, the mother’s chest (Phillips 2013; White 2004). In this way, maternal, physiological regulation will be working in synergy with the baby’s ANS, the need for technology will be lessened and the intensity thereof can be reduced, with better outcomes.

The essential requirement is maternal-infant ‘togetherness’, the first part of which is SSC, starting from the moment of birth and Zero Separation (Bergman & Bergman 2013). Achieving ‘togetherness’ also requires that the father does SSC (Erlandsson et al. 2007; Gloppestad 1998). Space thus needs to be provided for both mother and father to care for their baby. Broader social support is needed, not the ‘one size fits all’ and ‘no space for father’ that institutional and impersonal service often codify so rigidly.

Conclusion

The one intervention above any other that would improve neonatal and maternal outcomes is Zero Separation for the first day of every newborn’s life.

Acknowledgements

Competing interests
The author declares that he has no financial or personal relationship(s) that may have inappropriately influenced him in writing this article.

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19. Parents and newborn “togetherness” after birth
Katarina Patriksson, Lotta Selin
International Journal of Qualitative Studies on Health and Well-being  vol: 17  issue: 1  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1080/17482631.2022.2026281

20. Baby and Family-Centered Care in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit: Changing Perspective
Carol B. Jaeger
Critical Care Nursing Clinics of North America  vol: 36  issue: 2  first page: 185  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1016/j.cnc.2024.01.005

21. New policies on skin-to-skin contact warrant an oxytocin-based perspective on perinatal health care
Nils J. Bergman
Frontiers in Psychology  vol: 15  year: 2024  
doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2024.1385320

22. Is Birth Method Associated with Sensory Hyperreactivity in Children 3-4 Years in an Upper-Middle-Income Country?
Ann Frances Watkyns, Pamela Joy Gretschel, Helen Buchanan, Erna I. Blanche
Occupational Therapy International  vol: 2023  first page: 1  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1155/2023/5598392

23. Effects of Skin-to-Skin Care During Cesareans: A Quasiexperimental Feasibility/Pilot Study
Jeannette T. Crenshaw, Ellise D. Adams, Richard E. Gilder, Kristine DeButy, Kristin L. Scheffer
Breastfeeding Medicine  vol: 14  issue: 10  first page: 731  year: 2019  
doi: 10.1089/bfm.2019.0202

24. Effects of Kangaroo Mother Care on Repeated Procedural Pain and Cerebral Oxygenation in Preterm Infants
Yu Wang, Linping Zhang, Wenbin Dong, Rong Zhang
American Journal of Perinatology  vol: 40  issue: 08  first page: 867  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1055/s-0041-1731650

25. The Neonatal Integrative Developmental Care Model: Advanced Clinical Applications of the Seven Core Measures for Neuroprotective Family-centered Developmental Care
Leslie Altimier, Raylene Phillips
Newborn and Infant Nursing Reviews  vol: 16  issue: 4  first page: 230  year: 2016  
doi: 10.1053/j.nainr.2016.09.030

26. Spring into action
Leslie Altimier, Breidge Boyle
Journal of Neonatal Nursing  vol: 25  issue: 2  first page: 51  year: 2019  
doi: 10.1016/j.jnn.2019.01.003

27. Parental opinions about the benefit of kangaroo care in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit
Maria Thereza Valle Vasconcellos, Ana Lúcia Gonçalves Brantes, Inês Rebelo Cruz, Maria Alice Santos Curado
Journal of Neonatal Nursing  vol: 29  issue: 1  first page: 123  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1016/j.jnn.2022.03.009

28. Facility-based care for moderately low birthweight infants in India, Malawi, and Tanzania
Katherine E. A. Semrau, Rana R. Mokhtar, Karim Manji, Shivaprasad S. Goudar, Tisungane Mvalo, Christopher R. Sudfeld, Melissa F. Young, Bethany A. Caruso, Christopher P. Duggan, Sarah S. Somji, Anne C. C. Lee, Mohamed Bakari, Kristina Lugangira, Rodrick Kisenge, Linda S. Adair, Irving F. Hoffman, Friday Saidi, Melda Phiri, Kingsly Msimuko, Fadire Nyirenda, Mallory Michalak, Sangappa M. Dhaded, Roopa M. Bellad, Sujata Misra, Sanghamitra Panda, Sunil S. Vernekar, Veena Herekar, Manjunath Sommannavar, Rashmita B. Nayak, S. Yogeshkumar, Saraswati Welling, Krysten North, Kiersten Israel-Ballard, Kimberly L. Mansen, Stephanie L. Martin, Katelyn Fleming, Katharine Miller, Arthur Pote, Lauren Spigel, Danielle E. Tuller, Linda Vesel, Giridhara R Babu
PLOS Global Public Health  vol: 3  issue: 4  first page: e0001789  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1371/journal.pgph.0001789

29. Who owns the baby? A video ethnography of skin-to-skin contact after a caesarean section
Jeni Stevens, Virginia Schmied, Elaine Burns, Hannah G. Dahlen
Women and Birth  vol: 31  issue: 6  first page: 453  year: 2018  
doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2018.02.005

30. The CO-PARTNER tool – Translation, cultural adaption and content validation of the Norwegian version
Bente Silnes Tandberg, Solfrid Steinnes, Nicole van Veenendaal, Lene Tandle Lyngstad
Journal of Neonatal Nursing  vol: 31  issue: 3  first page: 101669  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1016/j.jnn.2025.101669

31. Interactive sequences between fathers and preterm infants in the neonatal intensive care unit
Alberto Stefana, Manuela Lavelli, Germano Rossi, Beatrice Beebe
Early Human Development  vol: 140  first page: 104888  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2019.104888

32. An analysis of the effects of intrapartum factors, neonatal characteristics, and skin‐to‐skin contact on early breastfeeding initiation
Ying Lau, Pyai Htun Tha, Sarah Su Tin Ho‐Lim, Lai Ying Wong, Peng Im Lim, Binte Zaini Mattar Citra Nurfarah, Shefaly Shorey
Maternal & Child Nutrition  vol: 14  issue: 1  year: 2018  
doi: 10.1111/mcn.12492

33. ‘Now she has become my daughter’: parents’ early experiences of skin‐to‐skin contact with extremely preterm infants
Ragnhild Maastrup, Janne Weis, Anne B. Engsig, Kirsten L. Johannsen, Vibeke Zoffmann
Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences  vol: 32  issue: 2  first page: 545  year: 2018  
doi: 10.1111/scs.12478

34. Mothers of children with down syndrome: A qualitative study of experiences of breastfeeding and breastfeeding support
Lisbeth Jönsson, Christina Olsson Tyby, Sara Hullfors, Pia Lundqvist
Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences  vol: 36  issue: 4  first page: 1156  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1111/scs.13088

35. Society for Maternal‐Fetal Medicine Position Statement: Decriminalization of substance use disorder in pregnancy
Erinma Ukoha, Ashish Premkumar, Marcela Smid, Jeffrey Ecker
Pregnancy  vol: 1  issue: 4  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1002/pmf2.70033

36. Historical background to maternal‐neonate separation and neonatal care
Nils J. Bergman
Birth Defects Research  vol: 111  issue: 15  first page: 1081  year: 2019  
doi: 10.1002/bdr2.1528

37. Spiritual needs of mothers with sick new born or premature infants—A cross sectional survey among German mothers
Arndt Büssing, Undine Waßermann, Niels Christian Hvidt, Alfred Längler, Michael Thiel
Women and Birth  vol: 31  issue: 2  first page: e89  year: 2018  
doi: 10.1016/j.wombi.2017.08.002

38. Separation after childbirth and the psychological, social and physical implications: ethnographic insights from a neonatal intensive care unit
Michella Bjerregaard, Anna Axelin, Ingrid Poulsen, Anne Brødsgaard
BMJ Open  vol: 15  issue: 11  first page: e105199  year: 2025  
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2025-105199

39. Kangaroo position during neonatal ground ambulance transport: Parents' experiences
Pia Lundqvist, Ulf Jakobsson, Karina Terp, Johannes van den Berg
Nursing in Critical Care  vol: 27  issue: 3  first page: 384  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1111/nicc.12681

40. A juxtaposition of birth and surgery: Providing skin-to-skin contact in the operating theatre and recovery
Jeni Stevens, Virginia Schmied, Elaine Burns, Hannah Dahlen
Midwifery  vol: 37  first page: 41  year: 2016  
doi: 10.1016/j.midw.2016.03.015

41. El racionalismo y la descorporalización moderna del parto: por una ecología del nacimiento
Federico Ignacio Viola, Ana María Bonet de Viola, Marisa Espinoza
Salud Colectiva  vol: 16  first page: e2548  year: 2020  
doi: 10.18294/sc.2020.2548

42. Factors associated with skin-to-skin contact less than 180 min/day in newborns weighing up to 1,800 g: multicenter study
Adna Nascimento Souza, Zeni Carvalho Lamy, Marivanda Julia Furtado Goudard, Sérgio Tadeu Martins Marba, Roberta Costa, Laize Nogueira de Caldas, Vivian Mara Gonçalves de Oliveira Azevedo, Fernando Lamy-Filho
Ciência & Saúde Coletiva  vol: 28  issue: 4  first page: 1021  year: 2023  
doi: 10.1590/1413-81232023284.14822022

43. Facilitating integrated mental, emotional, and physical states in children who have suffered early abandonment trauma
Cristina Cortes Viniegra, Marie France Aumeunier-Gizard
European Journal of Trauma & Dissociation  vol: 5  issue: 4  first page: 100214  year: 2021  
doi: 10.1016/j.ejtd.2021.100214

44. Exploring physiological stability of infants in Kangaroo Mother Care position versus placed in transport incubator during neonatal ground ambulance transport in Sweden
Johannes van den Berg, Ulf Jakobsson, Bo Selander, Pia Lundqvist
Scandinavian Journal of Caring Sciences  vol: 36  issue: 4  first page: 997  year: 2022  
doi: 10.1111/scs.13000

45. Mother–newborn couplet care and the expectations, concerns and educational needs of healthcare professionals: a qualitative study
Joan Neergaard Larsen, Laura Emdal Navne, Helena Hansson, Ragnhild Maastrup, Porntiva Poorisrisak, Jette Led Sørensen, Lotte Broberg
BMJ Open  vol: 14  issue: 12  first page: e086572  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-086572

46. Women’s experiences of disrespect and abuse in Swiss facilities during the COVID-19 pandemic: a qualitative analysis of an open-ended question in the IMAgiNE EURO study
Alessia Abderhalden-Zellweger, Claire de Labrusse, Michael Gemperle, Susanne Grylka-Baeschlin, Anouck Pfund, Antonia N. Mueller, Ilaria Mariani, Emanuelle Pessa Valente, Marzia Lazzerini
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth  vol: 24  issue: 1  year: 2024  
doi: 10.1186/s12884-024-06598-6

47. Neonatal transitional support with intact umbilical cord in assisted vaginal deliveries: a quality-improvement cohort study
Elisabeth Sæther, Friedrich Reinhart-Van Gülpen, Christer Jensen, Tor Åge Myklebust, Beate Horsberg Eriksen
BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth  vol: 20  issue: 1  year: 2020  
doi: 10.1186/s12884-020-03188-0

48. Zero separation policy in small but stable neonates weighing 1500-2000 grams at birth: a single center study in New Delhi, India
Rohit Anand, Srishti Goel, Sugandha Saxena, Bhawna Dubey, Gunjana Kumar, Sushma Nangia
Journal of Global Health Reports  vol: 7  year: 2023  
doi: 10.29392/001c.90041