Murray (2001:1) states that this behaviour of discrimination, harassment, isolation and violence has a great impact on the health and well-being of homosexually orientated learners. Victims of aggression experience a variety of negative outcomes, a low self-esteem and the possibility of psychosomatic illness associated with stress, particularly depression and isolation (Wicks-Nelson & Israel 2003:200; Randall 1996:12).

Homophobia is often associated with the development of gender roles. For boys, traditionally appropriate sex roles, such as breadwinner and decision-maker, and for girls, the traditional sex roles of child-bearing, rearing and nurturing of the family, imply certain personality characteristics. These stereotypes are problematic – girls and boys who do not conform to these roles are accused of being of the opposite sex or homosexual (Forrest, Biddle & Clift 2006:18). According to Richardson (2006:18), ‘… learners are often bullied if they do not conform to gender stereotypes or are assumed to be homosexual.’

Homophobia (Plummer 2001) starts on the school playgrounds, where labels like ’faggot‘ and ’poofter‘ are given to boys whose behaviour is perceived as in any way different. According to Olweus (cited in Sanders & Phye 2004:64), ‘bullying is a growing and significant problem in many schools around the world’; and ‘Being a bully or a victim is something that can last for a long time, often for several years’ (Olweus 2001:27–28). Learners who are exposed to this kind of negative action find themselves helpless against those perpetrators who harass them (Olweus 2001:10). In some cases the experiences of victimisation are so negative that learners are driven to self-harm and suicide (Forrest et al. 2006:19). Victims of bullying that is related to their sexual orientation can experience poor school achievement, which can lead to lateness or absence and, in extreme cases, suicide (Pupils Support Circular 10/99, in Mullen 2001:4; National Union of Teachers 2004a:2).

Learners’ aggression towards each other makes the school an unsafe place. Forrest et al. (2006:20) state that young homosexually orientated people suffer homophobic bullying in the form of violent attacks, damaging of personal property, threats, unpleasant looks and stares from peers, as well as being isolated. This kind of bullying takes place in classrooms, corridors and on playgrounds. These forms of aggression can result in serious injury or even death. According to Fraser (2004:141), this type of aggressive behaviour can cause psychological and physical health problems if conflict and oppression are internalised. It is the responsibility of teachers and schools to address homophobic bullying. Fraser (2004:141) states that there are some cases where school personnel ignore, discount or even participate in the harassment of learners. “Harassment occurs in an environment in which negative and harmful stereotypes about homosexual people are left unrecognised or unchecked by those in positions of authority” (Fraser 2004:141). Richardson (2006:18) states that teachers need to ’recognise that learners are often bullied because they do not conform to gender stereotypes or are assumed to be homosexual.’

The specific research question that directed this research was: What are Grade 11 learners’ experiences of aggression towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation?

Independent secondary school environment: In this research, independent school environment refers to a private school (Mostert 2008:8).

Learners: The learners in this study are secondary school learners in Grade 11 (Mostert 2008:8).

Perceived homosexuality: For the purposes of this research this refers to learners who are perceived as being homosexual if they do not conform to specific gender stereotypes, for example assuming that a ‘feminine’ boy is gay and that a ’masculine’ girl is lesbian (Mostert 2008:8; Richardson 2006:18).

Learners in Grade 11 were selected because they are usually between the ages of 16 and 18 years, and this age group was selected because, according to Kohlberg (Hook, Watts & Cokcroft, 2002: 294-303, most of these learners function at the post-conventional level of moral reasoning. During this age period social contact orientation and a universal ethic principle orientation are prominent. In this regard, the learners in the sample most probably adhered to sustaining general individual rights having been agreed upon by the whole society. Grade 12 learners were not included in the sample because the first author, who did the fieldwork, teaches this group of learners. For the purposes of this article learners who are seen as ‘different’ and are therefore labelled (accurately or not) as being homosexual were included in the research population.

According to Neuman (1997:240), an open-ended question allows a free response. The researchers posed the following question to the participants: Tell me, how is it for you when you look at this photograph? Write an essay on your experience of this photograph. The essays investigated and explored the participants’ experiences towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation, and the participants’ experience of aggression towards these learners. The essays of the participants were analysed.

In addition, phenomenological group interviews were conducted with secondary school Grade 11 learners to investigate and explore their experiences towards learners perceived to be homosexual and those with a homosexual orientation, and the participants’ experiences of aggression towards these learners. The researchers used different methods to collect data from participants, such as essays (naïve sketches), phenomenological focus groups, observations and field notes (Mostert 2008:29–32; Myburgh & Strauss 2010:29). Phenomenological group interviews use a group to contribute to a ‘controlled experience and then respond to questions about that experience’ (Keats 2000:16). Moore (2001:124) states that phenomenological group interviews ‘force people to consider how they feel about issues in the light of other people’s feelings.’ One open-ended question was used in the phenomenological group interviews: Tell me, how is it for you when another learner is homosexual?

Although this was a sensitive topic to address in a phenomenological group interview, it was decided that the learners would be more comfortable to speak openly if they were together in a group to support and encourage each other.

The data collected from the essays on the participants’ experiences based on a published newspaper photograph, phenomenological group interviews, observations and field notes were analysed. Data saturation was reached when repetitive patterns of themes and categories were observed in the data collected from participants about their experiences.

Demographics: Thirty learners (19 males and 11 females) wrote essays (that is, naïve sketches). These participants were between 16 and 17 years of age, and took part in four phenomenological focus group interviews.

Themes from the data analysis: Three themes were evident from the data analysis (Table 2), which are discussed below. After each direct quotation from participants the participant’s number, gender, age and from which data set the quotation comes from will be provided.

The following are excerpts from the participants’ essays and interviews:

’I have nothing wrong with homosexuality.’(Participant 2, female, 16 years, essay)

’I think if two people are happy then there should be nothing wrong with it.’(Participant 7, male, 17 years, interview)

’I don’t feel uncomfortable and if they are happy then you must let them be.’(Participant 30, male, 16 years, essay)

’I don’t judge people based on that, so if they’re happy, then I’m happy for them.’(Participant 10, female, 17 years, essay)

’It honestly doesn’t bother me at all …’ (Participant 1, female, 17 years, interview)

From these quotations it seems as if these participants are of the opinion that learners with a homosexual orientation should be accepted and allowed to make their own choices. This is in line with Shaffer (2002:511), who opines that moral maturity can be characterised by a person showing feelings of care, concern and integrity. This could indicate an ability to accept someone else in spite of own perceptions and values. Empathetic understanding is indicated by an ‘ability to perceive experiences and feelings and their meaning from the standpoint of another person’ (Rogers, cited in Pervin & John 2001:563). An empathetic understanding usually directs a person’s approach towards other people and their values, attitudes and behaviour. Westen (1999:658) states that empathy refers to ‘feeling for another person who is hurting.’

Quotations from the data illustrating this theme are as follows:

’I don’t mind if someone is gay, but it mustn’t affect me, you know what I mean?’(Participant 29, female, 16 years, interview)

’If someone’s gay, that’s fine. It’s their business. I don’t mind if they are around and talk to me, but that part of them mustn’t really come into part of me.’(Participant 7, male, 17 years, essay)

’Okay, I’m straight and whatever. As long as they don’t try and make me change who I am ...’ (Participant 11, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

It is necessary to give in-depth consideration to the pattern in the data that learners experience ambivalence towards learners perceived to be homosexual and those with a homosexual orientation. Similar trends are observed where adolescents are trying to establish their own value systems (Kohlberg, cited in Slavin 1991:47−49). This observation can represent a manifestation of adolescents being confronted with challenges in the moral realm that are not clear-cut or do not present in singular modes with simple answers. It is possible that ambivalence concerning an own stance towards own sexuality can influence the acceptance of another person perceived to be ‘different’. The realisation of the imperative that other persons are justified and within their rights to have an own opinion, make own decisions and have an own way of life, usually takes place during the adolescent stage of development.

Quotations from the data illustrating this theme are as follows:

’To me, I’m against homosexuals.’(Participant 14, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

’Um, it’s not right; I feel it’s not right that two people of the same sex are together …’ (Participant 22, male, 16 years, essay & interview)

’To them kissing another guy is normal, I do not agree with that at all.’(Participant 20, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

’Really, I’m against it.’(P25, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

‘… like I look at him as if like it’s not normal.’(Participant 27, male, 16 years, essay & interview)

‘… perceived as not being normal …’(Participant 16, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

’I do not associate myself or socialise with any.’(Participant 23, male, 17 years, essay & interview)

From these quotations it is clear that these Grade 11 participants strongly object to learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation. The participating learners stated that they perceived such learners as ’not normal‘, that they do not agree with such behaviour and do not want to be associated with learners labelled as such. Mullen (2001:9) states that assumptions, myths and negative attitudes towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation all lead to social exclusion. In this contextual research it seemed that the participants who verbalised that they do not accept other learners perceived to be homosexual, socially excluded the learners. This social exclusion of learners who are perceived as homosexual can be viewed as a form of bullying. In line with this, after conducting research on bullying Oliver and Candappa (2003:5) declared that the most common forms of bullying are name-calling, physical aggression, unwanted sexual touching, social isolation and also sexist, racist and anti-gay abuse. Deliberate exclusion from social groups or intimidation in a group is indicative of social bullying (Lee 2004:10). Sullivan (2001:13) observed that some learners who are perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation become victims of bullying in its various forms.

In Prejudice & Attitudes to Gay Men – Homophobia (Avert 2005:1) it is stated that if male and female learners do not act in accordance with their gender stereotype, they may be subjected to severe bullying and even given derogatory names (Anderson 1997:65). Westen (1999:790) states that ‘stereotypes are often over-generalised, inaccurate, and resistant to new information’. Nevertheless, persons act on their own stereotyping of other persons. Mostert (2008:64) observed that the participants were willing to act on their convictions by indirect external manifestations through, for example, responses. These responses included spreading rumours, insults, name-calling, teasing, bad jokes and mocking. It also manifest physically, for example through bullying, hitting and ganging up against the learners concerned (Mostert 2008:65). Mostert (2008:65) continues by stating that these learners reported that their parents, peers and religion influenced them in forming negative feelings towards the said learners.

Schools have a responsibility to create a secure and safe environment for children who are in their care so that parents may hand their children over in the confident knowledge that they will be protected from the bullies. (p. 7)

According to Rivers et al. (cited in Sullivan, Cleary & Sullivan 2004:14), homophobic bullying in schools ‘occurs when individuals are singled out and bullied because of their actual or perceived sexual orientation’. This form of aggression causes concern, and is a challenging problem that is complex and difficult to address.

In the effective handling of aggression towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation, it is essential to follow a whole-school approach. According to Sullivan (2001:39) a whole-school approach will be an efficient strategy to handle aggression. A whole-school approach should be aimed at consciously creating a caring, concerned, sympathetic ethos in which all members are respected (Tattum & Lane 1994:18; National Union of Teachers 2004b:1). According to Farrington (cited in Sanders & Phye 2004:169), intervention measures against bullying should focus on the whole school. Taking a whole-school approach in addressing this problem needs to include stakeholders such as teachers, school staff, learners, parents and support structures to support and address the fundamental issues of the school. In a whole-school approach everyone involved is consulted and their experiences used to deal with the challenge (Sullivan et al. 2004:55). Sullivan (2001:42) states that an inclusive approach should be followed to include all groups in the development and implementation of a whole-school anti-aggression approach. Olweus (2001:65) suggests that an intervention programme should aim ’to reduce as much as possible – ideally to eliminate completely – existing aggression‘. The goal of a whole-school approach should be ’to eradicate bullying and promote an environment in which it cannot thrive and which strives to improve peer relationships throughout the community‘ (Randall 1996:47).

In addressing learners with regard to their perceptions towards learners perceived to be homosexual or having a homosexual orientation, cognisance should be taken of the developmental stage of adolescents and the three distinct patterns of judgements observed in these data. Further research must be done with regard to these perceptions and how to address them against the framework of the South African Constitution and Declaration of Human Rights. The suggested guidelines are preliminary, general and broad. Two broad guidelines are suggested, namely:

• A supportive approach should be followed with the objective of following an open, facilitative role when addressing learners’ ambivalent feelings towards learners who are perceived to be homosexual and those with a homosexual orientation. The goal should be to assist learners to clarify their own value system.

• A supportive approach should be followed with the objective of addressing learners’ perceptions of being opposed to learners perceived to be homosexual and those with a homosexual orientation. In this regard the detrimental effect of negative stereotyping should be explored. Learners can be invited to do self-introspection and assess the detrimental effects of such negative stereotyping of other persons on their own mental health and the mental health of those persons perceived to be of a different orientation. The aim of such an intervention should be re-orientating the aggressive feelings of the former towards other persons perceived to be different from them and their value systems.

Guidelines directed at teachers, school staff, parents and caregivers, learners (victims and perpetrators), as well as the support systems in the school, are recommended in order to prevent and address aggression in the school. Aggression towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation happens all the time, and has a negative psychological and physical effect on both the perpetrators and the victims. Aggression towards learners perceived to be homosexual and learners with a homosexual orientation has a negative and detrimental effect on both the perpetrators’ and victims’ mental health. With constructive guidelines, skills and knowledge, such aggression can be prevented or limited in the classroom and in the school with the support of all the stakeholders involved in education.

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