Educational Technology and Resource- Based Learning as Applied to Nursing Education

H ierdie artikel bespreek die agtergrond van opvoedkundige tegnologie en die trefkrag daarvan op alle fasette van die onderw ys. Daar word definisies gegee van " opvoedkundige tegnologie " in die ruim ste sin van die w oord en ook van opvoed ku nd ige teg n o lo é. B loom se taksonom ie van opvoedkund ige d oelstellin gs op die k ognitiew e en affektiew e terreine word m et betrekking tot die ontw ikkeling van 'n sistem atiese benadering tot die leersituasie b espreek. D ie elem en te van 'n sistem atiese benadering tot die op stel van leerplanne word ook verm eld. D ie konsep van die to tale onderw yser word uitgew erk, asook on d erw yserge-sentreerde, leerdergesentreerde en vennootskapsm etodes in die leersituasie. Die kenm erke van opleiding teenoor opvoeding en leerstelsels wat op onderwys gebaseer is teenoor die wat op hulpbronne gebaseer is, word geskets. H ulpbronne wat op leer gebaseer is sow el as die im plem entering van hulpbronne gegrond op die leerervaringskeél, word bespreek. Die beginsels, kenm erke en voorw aardes vir die beheer van hulp-bronnesentra word behandel, en ten slotte word daar m elding gem aak van enkele toepassings op verpleeg-onderw ys. H istorically there have been four m ajor revolutions in education. The first took place when education o f the young shifted from parent to teachers and schools eg. the Rabbinical schools and M uslim schools in which instructions were previously tribal and religious, and based on oral com ­ m unication and memory work. Secondly, the written word superseded oral instruction in that it becam e an aid to m em ory, and a source o f stored information as know ledge expanded. Thirdly, the invention o f printing and the subsequent in­ crease and availability o f printed material m ade learning accessible to more people. A fter an interval o f five centuries the fourth revolution in education occurred as a result o f the application o f m odem com m unications technology, electronic devices and the sys­ tems approach to education. (Carnegie C om m ission Report on Higher Education, 1972.) Furtherm ore, factors putting pressure on the present edu­ cational approach are the population explosion, the know ­ ledge explosion, new developm ents and applications in the psychology o f learning and the technological device explo­ sion.

H istorically there have been four m ajor revolutions in education.The first took place when education o f the young shifted from parent to teachers and schools eg. the Rabbinical schools and M uslim schools in which instructions were previously tribal and religious, and based on oral com m unication and memory work.
Secondly, the written word superseded oral instruction in that it becam e an aid to m em ory, and a source o f stored information as know ledge expanded.
Thirdly, the invention o f printing and the subsequent in crease and availability o f printed material m ade learning accessible to more people.
A fter an interval o f five centuries the fourth revolution in education occurred as a result o f the application o f m odem com m unications technology, electronic devices and the sys tems approach to education.(Carnegie C om m ission Report on Higher Education, 1972.)Furtherm ore, factors putting pressure on the present edu cational approach are the population explosion, the know ledge explosion, new developm ents and applications in the psychology o f learning and the technological device explo sion.
The possibility for the im provem ent o f teaching and learn ing experiences by m eans o f educational hardware and soft ware is imm ense, but in order to make effective use of them educationists are finding it necessary to re-evaluate and re design curricula.
The impact of applications of educational technology has affected all facets o f education: Educational equipm ent is vastly improved in terms of quality, quantity and ease o f use; the traditional school environm ent is changing in that through improved informa tion retrieval system s and self-instruction learning ap proaches the ordinary classroom restraints such as rigid tim etables begin to fall away; traditional attitudes to educa tion are changing in that young people are increasingly in contact with a larger world because o f mass com m unica tions, ma$s transport and highly developed consumerism.They realise the accessibility o f a vast store of knowledge and the means to get it.This has dem oted the traditional educational institution from being the only major' official source o f know ledge.Students are no longer awed by the learned authority' ' nor by present developm ents in machine technology.
Instructional m ethods o f teaching and learning are af fected in that the com puter age has brought the analytical systems approach.This has resulted in an attempt to refine curricula and use a more logical and co-ordinated approach to curriculum developm ent.

ED UCATIO N A L TECH N O LO G Y
All this has led to the broad concept of Educational Tech nology.This term derives from " techne" = art, craft; and " logia" = system atic study.Accordingly it has to do with the art o f system atically arranging, observing or doing things, or using any logical technique,-device or process.W hen applied to education the average interpretation is usu ally confined to the use of man-made devices, but the, true concept of educational technology is much broader than that.
According to the Council for Educational Technology for the United Kingdom: " Educational Technology" may be explained as a planned system atic (scientific) approach to the learning situation.It takes into account the organisation and implem entation of m odem learning systems (the " system s" approach is much used in techniques evolved from the psychology o f learning as applied in the industrial world); and takes advantage o f the facilities offered by modem com m unication m ethods, visual aids, classroom organisation and teaching m ethods (m odern com m unication system s and media have greatly influenced the learning process); the role o f the teacher changes from that o f traditional type instructor to that of m anager o f the total learning situation (planning, organising, executing and controlling in a system atic welldeveloped w ay), w hile the role o f the student changes from that of passive recipient of information (with often a com plete lack of transfer of knowledge) to that of an active participant in the learning process, passing through activities and learning experiences designed to help him meet specific, meaningful and relevant learning objectives.The accent is on " learning by doing" .Finally the learning process is meas ured against specific criteria (criterion-referenced instruc tion) to see if the learner has reached the desired learning outcom e and com petencies.(Council for Educational Tech nology: Information Leaflet 1.) Educational technology therefore aims to put the princi ples of psychology, philosophy, and methods o f learning into a systematic practical application adapted to the changing learning needs o f modern times.It aims also to make for better quality teaching, to enhance educational pow er and to prevent the type of educational malpractice which fails to meet the students' learning needs because it is inadequate in design, irrelevant in content, or under-or over-supplied in content.
Educational technology helps teachers make the fullest and most effective use o f all types of study materials and media available to them in either a college situation or from other services.It helps them develop their individual and corporate production o f evaluated study materials in accor dance with students' learning needs and existing facilities.It assists them in the developm ent of procedures for the organi sation and management of all types of learning resources and last but not least, helps them to put the learning needs and personal developm ent o f the student, central to the learning situation.
" An educational technologist is a person who seeks to apply this body of knowledge to the problems of curriculum planning, selection o f strategies and media as well as to student assessment and evaluation.It goes further and fo cuses on the teacher and his teaching as well as the student and his learning."(Bob McCormick: Institute o f Educa tional Technology: Open University).
Educational technology has served to change adult educa tion from a teacher-centred approach to a learner-centred • approach.This means that all possible resources (whether people, media, things, places etc.) are made available to the learner.The learner is put into the position of taking more responsibility for his learning and to participate more ac tively in the learning situation.This is supported by a system o f guidance and is structured to help the student develop specified competencies.
It is predicted that by the year 2000 10-20% ot on-campus students will be involved in learning situations based on all aspects o f educational technology and 80% o f students off cam pus.(Carnegie Commission on Higher Education, June 1972) Through an effective use of educational technology the teacher can multiply herself many times over as far as one way com m unication of information is concerned.This frees her from the repetitive task of teaching in order to build m ore meaningful two-way communication and interac tion with the student.She is able to ensure that learning experiences and instructional materials assist the student to reach pre-stated educational objectives, to effect a goaldirected change in behaviour and action, or to achieve a satisfactory learning outcome in terms of know ledge, skills and attitudes.
All this is very relevant to nursing education because modem nursing is expanding rapidly in term s o f know ledge, skills and attitudes.Furtherm ore, it is expanding in terms of intellectual requirem ents.Because of this the teacher needs to make use o f the newest classification o f intellectual abilities as related to required educational outcom es.These are to be found in B loom 's Taxonom y o f Educational O bjec tives of which there are two handbooks, one dealing with the cognitive dom ain and the other with the affective domain.
The stated intellectual abilities and their related learning outcom es (or objectives) as set out by Bloom can be inter preted as a type o f learning pyramid as set out below: If the learning outcom es and their relationship to the levels of intellectual abilities and affective states as expressed by Bloom in his book -are carefully consi dered we can well ask ourselves as nurse-educatorshow far up the scale do we perm it and encourage student nurses to go when on basic courses?Yet, in fact, as soon as they becom e practising regis tered nurses they are required to function at very high levels if they are to be com petent.They becom e in volved in situations which require a highly complex range o f abilities not only in the psycho-m otor domain but also in the cognitive and affective dom ains.
W hat learning experiences are purposefully struc tured into the im plem entation o f the basic curricula to help the students to develop some o f the higher intellec tual abilities such as analysis, synthesis and evaluation?O r do too many o f our program m es, basic and postbasic, revolve around only the foundation abilities of recall, recognition and assim ilation, i.e. assimilation of specifics.
The application o f a system atic approach to the learn ing situation can include application of B loom 's Tax onomy by choosing suitable learning experiences.
A system atic approach to curriculum design in volves know ledge o f the student in the total context as well as the individual learning needs.Time is taken to assess and obtain pre-requisite learning and ability be fore being allowed on course.A pre-test is done to assess the student's present know ledge of the course content, and thereafter the student proceeds to do only that part of the course in w hich he is not already proficient, thus saving effective learning time.Progress tests and a post-test will indicate rate and level o f achievement.
Learning is evaluated against pre-stated objectives and the student therefore not only knows beforehand the expected learning outcom es, but can see how far they have been attained in experience.This leads to improved learning satisfaction.
According to the type o f learning to be done, special learning experiences and resources are selected and pro vided for the student to enable the learning competencies to be achieved as soon as possible.This prevents demotivation.Key inform ation and guidance are provided by the teacher in different ways, w hile interaction bet ween teacher and student is built in at individual and small group sessions.
In this type of learning situation the concept o f the " total" teacher should be applied and developed i.e. individual differences between students are recognised and catered for.Flexibility in teachers becom es a neces sity as also the ability to manage the total learning situation in such a way as to enable the student to reach the pre-determ ined objectives.The teacher does not rely on being a " driver" or " m otivator" o f students, but becomes totally involved with each student so as to be able to assess, encourage and develop her throughout the period o f learning.The teacher gets to know the student's reactions, attitudes, and learning abilities or problems early enough to act remedially, or to use them to further the student's progress.
The methods chosen should provide for individual differences in students in that they should vary from self-learning through to large-group instruction.They should be chosen to stimulate individual or group par ticipation where they will assist the student in the at tainment of the stated learning objectives.
The learning environm ent, both psychologically and physically, should be such as to support the student.
T he " to ta l" te ach er is one w ho is not " task orientated" but is " person situation" orientated: Also teaching should be viewed as a professional occupation holding the concepts o f the rights of the client and the professional's responsibilities to the client.Therefore the possibility of malpractice is a reality.This can be said to occur when the student either fails to meet the required learning needs in a given situation, or is de m otivated, or fails to develop to full potential.Therefore the ' ' total' ' teacher embraces any aspects of the modern sciences which will help to make the teaching situation more effective.
Today the required sciences include those of man agem ent, com m unication, and educational technology.
The total teacher sees teaching as an art involving the personality o f the teacher and the building o f a trustful student-teacher relationship, based on personal confidence and the ability to lead, guide and direct at crucial moments in the learning situation.
Teaching is seen as a personal challenge to build up the capacities of the student in such a way that they are able to function effectively in the future professional role.This means that the required com petencies must be analysed and clearly stated prior to designing a cur riculum.
Teaching is also seen as the transmission o f know ledge, skills, attitudes and values to the one who is becom ing professional.Teaching therefore must be based on dynam ic com m unication and the learning situation must be student-centred and not teachercentred.
Teacher-centred m ethods are those which put the em phasis on teach er p resentation, w hile learnercentred m ethods make use of techniques which will involve the student in active participation in the learning situation.This participation should be structured in such a way as to help students become aware of and identify their own strengths and weaknesses, their roles and responsibilities within the group, and to acquire skills in information, retrieval and communication.Partnership m ethods involve techniques which provide for close mental interaction between the teacher and student viz.question and answer, tutorials, counselling, discussion projects requiring report-back in some active form.
Really good teacher presentation and exposition can be an excellent means of inspiring, m otivating, stim ulat ing and inform ing.It has a valuable place if not hopelessly overdone.
A ''to ta l" teacher accepts the concept of team teach ing, and is w illing to be part of a team and make her contribution within that framework.Also such a teacher can identify when there is a shift in em phasis from training to education and vice versa, and can attempt to move as far as possible in the direc tion of education.
Training involves imitative reaction, short-range li mited goals and fixed ceilings, fixed inflexible m ethods, memorisation and repetition, unexamined conform ity, a limited sharing o f ideas and feelings, and learning by prescription -all o f which tend to produce a dependent learner who is liable to become fixed in a dependent state.
This type o f class teaching is often traum atic to teachers, especially student teachers and new teachers.In a training type situation TEACHING IS VIEW ED AS A PERFORM ANCE by the teacher while the forced passivity of the students can tend to dem otivate the active type o f learner.
Education on the other hand, provides for creative, im aginative or reflective mental processes, the inclusion of long-range broad goals and flexible ceilings; and variable means o f achieving learning outcom es, thoughtful practice and application, thoughtful conformity and non-conform ity, unlimited sharing o f ideas and feelings, learning by thinking -and the production of an independent learner who has learned how to learn.
Training has its place in nursing, but an over emphasis in this direction does not provide for the developm ent o f intel lectual abilities or desired attitudinal changes.-A" to tal" teacher looks at both teacher-based and resource-based system s of learning and selects what will be best for the student and the learning situation.
Teacher-based system s can require much passive listen ing caused by excessive teacher-talk, and may be based on uniformity of lesson-content as well as uniform ity of pace and style.They may fail to deal effectively with mixed ability classes and usually dem and a rigid tim etable with the em phasis on subject specialists.They usually revolve around consecutive short bursts of teaching with little or no oppor tunity for reflective work or extended periods o f discovery or problem -solving.
Resource-based learning however includes a selection of active forms of learning.It allows for different students to have different learning experiences at the same tim e.It can be adapted much more to individual differences.It works successfully with mixed ability classes and allows for greater flexibility.
Resource-based learning requires the provision o f all those learning resources which will provide for im proved learn ing, and can be defined as " anything in the environm ent that may be of value in forwarding the thinking and understand ing of the students w hether it be an artefact, a person or expert, an account, an explanation, a piece o f inform ation, an audio-or visual or audiovisual com m unication."(H older & W ilson 1974).Resources are part o f the designed learning experience and must be managed by the teacher, the student or the librarian, or a com bination o f these persons.In nursing the provision of resources is done best by means o f hospitalbased as well as college-based resource centres w hich make all required learning resources accessible to students.
The choice o f m edia, resources and learning experiences to be implemented in the curriculum should take into account the Cone of Learning Experience (D ale, Edgar; Audiovisual M ethods in Teaching, 3rd Edition 1969, Dryden Press, New York).This enables the teacher to be more purposeful and specific and choose according to the com plexity o f the work to be learned as well as the intellectual abilities to be de veloped.3.There should be adequate accom m odation for storage o f reference sources, for preparation o f m aterial, and for student-learning space w hether as individuals o r groups.
4. There should be provision for a wide range o f playback equipm ent i.e. for viewing o r listening; and also o f materials for production.

Conditions
1.The resources system must be suitable eg.interlocking o f services betw een classroom , institution and regionall organised as one integrated resources service.
Fast and efficient retrieval must be part of the system, and co-ordination o f services is desirable.2. The control system m ust be effective and not hinder the service.Also a learning resources system for teachers and learners should provide a support service in that four main functions o f the resource centre should be included viz. a provision function, a production function, an instructional func tion, and a consultative function.These four functions should flow throughout the system from the central resources centre through the institution resources centre to the point of delivery within the student environm ent.

A PPLICATIO N S TO NURSING EDUCATION
Having said all this, how can the principles of educational technology and resource-based learning be applied to basic courses in nursing education?
One approach is an instructional m odules system of ward-based self-instruction to form the basis of continuous study between College Blocks.This approach is designed to give nurses all the possible learning experiences related to their ward-placem ent and to make available to them such learning resources as are possi ble at this stage.The departm ent to fall under a Principal Matron and to be developed to include all basic and post-basic education.
The arm of individualised learning skills is the first to be developed.An instructional design team made up of tutors, clinical instructors, m atrons and ward sisters is writing a series of self-learning m odules based on com petencies to be learnt in a given clinical situation.
The pattern on which the modules are built consists of a series of O rientation, Basic, Advanced, Specialised and De velopmental m odules respectively.In order to write a mod ule the com petencies to be developed in the ward-based situation are first assessed, listed and then stated in the form o f learning objectives.A short introduction to the module leads into the learning objectives.A list o f related reading m aterial, audiovisual aids, and relevant visits to persons or departm ents within the* hospital is included.Then learning experiences and exercises to be carried out in the ward situation are designed -one or more to fit each stated learning objective.
A system of placement of a variety of modules in the wards is used, and required resources are made available both in the wards and in the resource centres in hospital and college.
Nurses may choose which modules they wish to do, but they are guided in their choice according to level of ability, experience and type of ward.Nurses commence doing the orientation modules such as "T h e Nursing Process" ''Ob serving your Patient" , ''M eeting the Psychological and Spiritual Needs of the Patient" , " Meeting the Physical Needs o f the Patient" , etc. during their first months of training and prior to the first college block.
Support to the nurses is given by the sisters in the wards, tutors (both hospital-based and on rotation from the College), and clinical instructors.They assist the nurse in the choice of m odule, in understanding how to commence it, and on a continuous basis as she proceeds.
Evaluation based on the stated ward com petencies to be learnt is done by the nurse herself, the ward sister on a day-to-day basis, and the tutor-supervisor at the end o f the project.The nurse's developm ent is closely watched and carefully recorded and can be a basis for reference when she goes to College.So far the experimental project which began in January is going smoothly and the response from the nurses has been positive and encouraging.
The project is based on Tygerberg Hospital, under the control of Miss M. Hartman, and Sister Tutors from Otto du Plessis Nursing College and Sarleh Dollie Nursing College are participating on a rotation basis.One tutor is hospitalbased and two senior matrons who are tutor-trained, are helping to guide the project.
In the writing of the modules cognisance is taken of Bloom 's Taxonomy although this can be developed to a more sophisticated level in the Developmental M odules when these are written.
Audiovisual material is gradually being designed or pro duced and this will be augmented once the writing of the modules is completed.
By the end of 1978 an assessment can be made as to progress.Final assessment will be made when the January appointm ents complete their training.
Many applications of educational technology are feasible in nursing education, as also in medical education and will help to provide the nurse with a continuous system of learn ing, rather than only the " Block" System learning.This should help to provide a good foundation for the develop ment o f professional competencies and continuing educa tion.
The m anagement o f a resource centre in an institution should be based on the following principles, features, and conditions: (Council for Educational T echnology, w orking Papier 10; Resource Centres in Colleges o f Education) Principles 1.The availability o f resources to all students and teachers.2. The possibility o f full utilisation o f resources at periods when required by students.3. Provision for mixed ability students at various levels o f training.4.Provision for flexibility and integration o f resources and media.5.Promotion and provision for individual self-instruction under a system o f available guidance.Features1.A resource centre should fulfil all the functions o f a conventional-type library.2.Material and equipm ent should be ready for im m ediate use at all times.
3. The learning system m ust be adaptive to each unit of work and should utilise the principles of educational technology.4. New roles and new skills must be developed by the teacher.RESO U RC E-B A SED LEA RN IN G W ILL NOT SUC CEED UNLESS TEACHERS ARE W ILLING AND ABLE TO D EV ELO P THESE SKILLS. 5. Teachers m ust participate in the design o f learning re sources.
One current experim ent consists of the following: The establishm ent o f a hospital-based Departm ent of Nursing Education having four arms: (a) Selection and Appointm ents.(b) Individualised Learning Skills.(c) Clinical Instruction.(d) Evaluation.
al: T axonom y o f E ducational O bjectives: H andbook* 1 & II.D avid M cK ay C o.In c ., N ew Y ork 1974.2. C arn eg ie C o m m issio n on H igher Education: Instructional T ech n o lo g y in H igher E d u cation; June 1972; M cG raw H ill. N ew Y ork. 3. C o u n cil fo r Educational Technology: D evelopm ents in C om m unication: S em i n ar R ep o rt, H arrogate 1973, U .K .4. D ale, Edgar: A udiovisual M ethods in T eaching, 3rd E d itio n , 1969, D ryden P ress, N ew Y ork.